The Reader Revealed: Difference between revisions

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''The Reader Revealed'' was part of the [[Exhibitions at the Folger]]. The exhibition opened September 4, 2001 and closed January 19, 2002. The exhibition [http://shop.folger.edu/store/165013%21165/The+Reader+Revealed catalog] can be purchased from the Folger Shop.
''The Reader Revealed'' was part of the [[Exhibitions at the Folger]]. The exhibition opened September 4, 2001 and closed January 19, 2002. The exhibition [http://shop.folger.edu/store/165013%21165/The+Reader+Revealed catalog] can be purchased from the Folger Shop.


'''‘All the world’s a text, and all the men and women merely readers.’'''
''All the world’s a text, and all the men and women merely readers.''


Reading is fundamental to human interaction and communication. Through innovations in printing technology achieved by Johann Gutenberg in the fifteenth century, printed books became more affordable and more accessible. Thus, reading, once the preserve of a small educated elite, was opened up to a much more diverse audience.
Reading is fundamental to human interaction and communication. Through innovations in print technology achieved by Johann Gutenberg in the fifteenth century, printed books became more affordable and more accessible. Thus, reading—once the preserve of a small educated elite—was opened up to a much more diverse audience.


The earliest printed books incorporated the manuscript tradition of using red ink to direct the reader’s attention and interpretation, as well as type that imitated handwriting, known as black letter. In this [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=169843 16th C Primer], printed in black letter, red ink was used to emphasize the major holy days such as the “Nativity of Our Lord” on December 25, revealing the origin of ‘red-letter days.’
The earliest printed books incorporated the manuscript tradition of using red ink to direct the reader’s attention and interpretation, as well as type that imitated handwriting, known as black letter. In this [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=169843 16th century primer], printed in black letter, red ink was used to emphasize the major holy days such as the “Nativity of Our Lord” on December 25, revealing the origin of ‘red-letter days.’


English children were taught to read by their mothers or petty schoolmasters from hornbooks, or other basic reading manuals printed in black letter. They advanced from the fundamental ABCs, vowels, and Lord’s Prayer of the hornbook to the Primer. Female education often stopped at this level. Here a [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/ewv374 boy] receives instruction in writing his ABCs. The girl, standing to the side reading, is literally and figuratively excluded from the knowledge of writing.
English children were taught to read by their mothers or petty schoolmasters from hornbooks, or other basic reading manuals printed in black letter. They advanced from the fundamental ABCs, vowels, and the Lord’s Prayer of the [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/385lm9 hornbook] to the primer. Female education often stopped at this level. [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/ewv374 Here] a boy receives instruction in writing his ABCs. The girl, standing to the side reading, is literally and figuratively excluded from the knowledge of writing.


Readers at lower levels of literacy might read printed black letter but not handwritten italic scripts, and many, especially women, had only limited ability to write. An inability to write even one’s own name, however, did not necessarily indicate an inability to read since reading and writing were taught as separate processes, and reading was taught first.
Readers at lower levels of literacy might have been able to read printed black letter but not handwritten italic scripts, and many, especially women, had only limited ability to write in italic script. An inability to write even one’s own name, however, did not necessarily indicate an inability to read since reading and writing were taught as separate processes, and reading—abcedarian literacy—was taught first.


Reading served many purposes in early modern Europe. Renaissance readers were as varied as kings and tradesmen, saints and sinners, celebrities and nonentities. It is this 'great variety of readers' that is addressed by John Heminge and Henry Condell in the [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/4edirf preliminary leaves] of their 1623 Shakespeare First Folio.
Reading served many purposes in early modern Europe. Renaissance readers were as varied as kings and tradesmen, saints and sinners, celebrities and nonentities. It is this 'great variety of readers' that is addressed by John Heminge and Henry Condell in the [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/4edirf preliminary leaves] of their 1623 [[First Folio]] of Shakespeare's works.


Students and scholars read to acquire specialized knowledge. But even sixteenth-century schoolboys could occasionally be [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/q538zy distracted] from their study of Latin grammar.
Students and scholars read to acquire specialized knowledge. But even sixteenth-century schoolboys could occasionally be [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/q538zy distracted] from their study of Latin grammar.


Professionals read to enhance their skills. The accused read in pursuit of justice, the godly in search of salvation. Consumers read about new products. For women, studying worthy books might attract or repel suitors. Reading was often a pragmatic act, “studied for action” to navigate the difficult course of human experience. The practice of reading was expanded and enhanced through numerous technological innovations, among them mechanized book stands, or book wheels, spectacles, magnifying lenses, and new and improved light sources. “How to make a glorious light with a Candle, like the Sun-shine” is illustrated in John White’s collection of helpful hints.
Professionals read to enhance their skills. The accused read in pursuit of justice, the godly in search of salvation. Consumers read about new products. For women, studying worthy books might attract or repel suitors. Reading was often a pragmatic act, 'studied for action' to navigate the difficult course of human experience. The practice of reading was expanded and enhanced through numerous technological innovations, among them mechanized book stands, or book wheels, spectacles, magnifying lenses, and new and improved light sources. “How to make a glorious light with a Candle, like the Sun-shine” is illustrated in John White’s collection of helpful hints.


Throughout the seventeenth century, the community of readers grew and became more inclusive. One factor was the call for increased and improved education for women. Another factor was the agricultural revolution which afforded children and laborers more educational opportunities. The resulting improvement in literacy rates among these previously marginal groups increased the demand for, and contributed to the proliferation of, lower priced reading materials, making more books accessible to more readers.
Throughout the seventeenth century, the community of readers grew and became more inclusive. One factor was the call for increased and improved education for women. Another factor was the agricultural revolution which afforded children and laborers more educational opportunities. The resulting improvement in literacy rates among these previously marginal groups increased the demand for, and contributed to the proliferation of, lower priced reading materials, making more books accessible to more readers.
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These interactions evidence deeper levels of personal interaction between book and reader—from humorous to grave, from inane to practical, from affluent to humble. The range of sentiments reflected by readers transformed even ordinary books into [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=170184 valued keepsakes] to be passed on to future generations.
These interactions evidence deeper levels of personal interaction between book and reader—from humorous to grave, from inane to practical, from affluent to humble. The range of sentiments reflected by readers transformed even ordinary books into [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=170184 valued keepsakes] to be passed on to future generations.


The early modern reader is revealed to us today primarily through evidence in contemporary books and manuscripts. Accumulated and preserved over the centuries by great libraries and individual collectors like [[A Shared Passion: Henry Clay Folger, Jr. and Emily Jordan Folger as Collectors |Henry Clay Folger]], these books document the humble origins of a significant number of former owners and readers. Exquisite decoration and extensive annotation are evidence that these books were well-loved and well-used. Personal interactions between reader and book provide important insights into the lives, thoughts, and concerns of a time far removed from our own. The story revealed is an amazing and on-going saga of use, reverence, survival, and endurance.
The early modern reader is revealed to us today primarily through evidence in contemporary books and manuscripts. Accumulated and preserved over the centuries by great libraries and individual collectors like [[A Shared Passion: Henry Clay Folger, Jr. and Emily Jordan Folger as Collectors |Henry Clay Folger]] and [[Emily Jordan Folger]], these books document the humble origins of a significant number of former owners and readers. Exquisite decoration and extensive annotation are evidence that these books were well-loved and well-used. Personal interactions between reader and book provide important insights into the lives, thoughts, and concerns of a time far removed from our own. The story revealed is an amazing and on-going saga of use, reverence, survival, and endurance.


====''items included''====
====List of selected exhibition items====
* Sarah Sale. ''Notebook of Sarah Sale.'' Manuscript, 1679-1690. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=235879 A2254.5 (ms. content)].
 
* Christoff Weigel. ''Abbildung der gemein-nützlichen Haupt-Stände.'' Regenspurg, 1698. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=188648 203- 725q].
* Sarah Sale. ''Notebook of Sarah Sale.'' Manuscript, 1679-1690. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=235879 A2254.5 (ms. content)].
* John Taylor. ''Verbum sempiternum''. London: Printed by J. B[eale]., 1631. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=171589 STC 23811.2].
* Christoff Weigel. ''Abbildung der gemein-nützlichen Haupt-Stände.'' Regenspurg, 1698. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=188648 203- 725q].
* Arthur Dent. ''A sermon of repentaunce.'' London: for Iohn Harison, 1583. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=170506 STC 6652].
* John Taylor. ''Verbum sempiternum''. London: Printed by J. B[eale]., 1631. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=171589 STC 23811.2].
* ''Aabc […].'' [London?: s.n., 1625]. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=170177 STC 13813.6].
* Arthur Dent. ''A sermon of repentaunce.'' London: for Iohn Harison, 1583. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=170506 STC 6652].
* ''The New Testament of ovr Lord Iesvs Christ.'' London: Robert Barker, 1609. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=170019 STC 2907].
* ''Aabc […].'' [London?: s.n., 1625]. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=170177 STC 13813.6].
* Thomas Sternhold. ''The whole booke of Psalmes. ''London : Printed by I[ohn] L[egat], 1639. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=169604 STC 2689 copy 1].
* ''The New Testament of ovr Lord Iesvs Christ.'' London: Robert Barker, 1609. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=170019 STC 2907].
* Samuel Daniel. ''The collection of the history of England. ''London: Printed [by Nicholas Okes] for Simon Waterson, 1626. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=162114 STC 6251 copy 4]. [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/592kc8 LUNA Digital Image].
* Thomas Sternhold. ''The whole booke of Psalmes. ''London : Printed by I[ohn] L[egat], 1639. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=169604 STC 2689 copy 1].
* Church of England. ''Catechismus paruus pueris primùm Latinè qui ediscatur, proponendus in scholis.'' London, 1573. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=160966 STC 18711].
* Samuel Daniel. ''The collection of the history of England. ''London: Printed [by Nicholas Okes] for Simon Waterson, 1626. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=162114 STC 6251 copy 4] and  [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/592kc8 LUNA Digital Image].
* Francis Bacon. Francisci Baconi de Verulamio, summi Angliæ Cancelarii, De sapientia veterum, liber. London, 1634. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=158284 STC 1129]. [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/224eyn LUNA Digital Image].
* Church of England. ''Catechismus paruus pueris primùm Latinè qui ediscatur, proponendus in scholis.'' London, 1573. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=160966 STC 18711].
* Edward Dering. ''A collection of speeches made by Sir Edward Dering Knight and Baronet, in matter of religion''. London: Printed by E[dward]. G[riffin]. for F. Eglesfield, and Jo. Stafford, 1642. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=146322  D1104]. [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/77x048 LUNA Digital Image].
* Francis Bacon. Francisci Baconi de Verulamio, summi Angliæ Cancelarii, De sapientia veterum, liber. London, 1634. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=158284 STC 1129] and [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/224eyn LUNA Digital Image].
* Isaac Oliver. ''Philip Herbert, Fourth Earl of Pembroke''. [Exhibited as William Herbert]. Drawing on vellum with watercolor, 1611. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=128736 FPm10 (realia)]. [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/42ed44 LUNA Digital Image].
* Edward Dering. ''A collection of speeches made by Sir Edward Dering Knight and Baronet, in matter of religion''. London: Printed by E[dward]. G[riffin]. for F. Eglesfield, and Jo. Stafford, 1642. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=146322  D1104] and [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/77x048 LUNA Digital Image].
* George James De Wilde. ''The seven ages of man.'' Painting on canvas, 1823. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=128561 FPa19]. [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/2uenkm LUNA Digital Image].
* Isaac Oliver. ''Philip Herbert, Fourth Earl of Pembroke''. [Exhibited as William Herbert]. Drawing on vellum with watercolor, 1611. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=128736 FPm10 (realia)] and [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/42ed44 LUNA Digital Image].
* Hartmann Schopper. ''Panoplia omnium illiberalium mechanicarum aut sedentariarum artium genera continens.'' Frankfurt, 1568. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=115510 GT5770 .S4 Cage].
* George James De Wilde. ''The seven ages of man.'' Painting on canvas, 1823. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=128561 FPa19] and [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/2uenkm LUNA Digital Image].
* William Shakespeare. ''Mr. VVilliam Shakespeares comedies, histories, & tragedies.'' London: Printed by Isaac Iaggard, and Ed. Blount, 1623. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=79179 STC 22273 Fo.1 no.09]. [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/j2441o LUNA Digital Image].
* Hartmann Schopper. ''Panoplia omnium illiberalium mechanicarum aut sedentariarum artium genera continens.'' Frankfurt, 1568. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=115510 GT5770 .S4 Cage].
* William Shakespeare. ''Mr. VVilliam Shakespeares comedies, histories, & tragedies.'' London: Printed by Isaac Iaggard, and Ed. Blount, 1623. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=50310 STC 22273 Fo.1 no.46].
* William Shakespeare. ''Mr. VVilliam Shakespeares comedies, histories, & tragedies.'' London: Printed by Isaac Iaggard, and Ed. Blount, 1623. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=79179 STC 22273 Fo.1 no.09] and [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/j2441o LUNA Digital Image].
* Francis Carswell. ''England’s restoration parallel’d in Judah’s.'' London, 1689. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=137990 C650 Copy 2].  
* William Shakespeare. ''Mr. VVilliam Shakespeares comedies, histories, & tragedies.'' London: Printed by Isaac Iaggard, and Ed. Blount, 1623. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=50310 STC 22273 Fo.1 no.46].
* Clement Walker. ''Relations and observations, historical and politick, upon the Parliament begun anno Dom. 1640. Divided into II. books.'' London, 1648. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=137718 W334].
* Francis Carswell. ''England’s restoration parallel’d in Judah’s.'' London, 1689. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=137990 C650 Copy 2].  
* Joseph Moxon. ''Mechanick exercises: or, the doctrine of handy-works''. London, 1683. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=137076 M3014].  
* Clement Walker. ''Relations and observations, historical and politick, upon the Parliament begun anno Dom. 1640. Divided into II. books.'' London, 1648. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=137718 W334].
* Simeon Ash. ''A support for the sinking heart in times of distresse.'' London, 1642. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=135928 146- 894q].
* Joseph Moxon. ''Mechanick exercises: or, the doctrine of handy-works''. London, 1683. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=137076 M3014].  
* ''Poetical miscellany.'' Manuscript, ca. 1630. [V.a.345]. [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/d3v76n LUNA Digital Image].
* Simeon Ash. ''A support for the sinking heart in times of distresse.'' London, 1642. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=135928 146- 894q].
* Barry Moser. [Test impression for] the first book of Moses called Genesis [from the Pennyroyal-Caxton edition of the Holy Bible]. West Hatfield, Mass.: Pennyroyal Caxton Press, 1999. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=115326 252206 ART (size L)].
* ''Poetical miscellany.'' Manuscript, ca. 1630. Call number [http://hamnet.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=128836 V.a.345] and [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/d3v76n LUNA Digital Image].
* Marcus Tullius Cicero. ''Ciceronis De oratore libri III ; Orator ; De claris oratoribus / cum annotationibus Dionysii Lambini ... singulis tomis distinctis''. Venice, 1569. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=113599 Bd.w. PA6304 .R7 1569 Cage].
* Barry Moser. [Test impression for] the first book of Moses called Genesis [from the Pennyroyal-Caxton edition of the Holy Bible]. West Hatfield, Mass.: Pennyroyal Caxton Press, 1999. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=115326 252206 ART (size L)].
* Euclid. ''Preclarissimus liber elementorum Euclidis perspicacissimi, in artem geometrie incipit qua[m]foelicissime.'' Venice: Printed by Erhardus Ratdolt Augustensis, 1482. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=90023 INC E86].
* Marcus Tullius Cicero. ''Ciceronis De oratore libri III ; Orator ; De claris oratoribus / cum annotationibus Dionysii Lambini ... singulis tomis distinctis''. Venice, 1569. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=113599 Bd.w. PA6304 .R7 1569 Cage].
* Boethius. ''Auitij Maulij Torquati Seuerini Boetij ordinarij patricij viri exconsulis De consolatione ph[ilosoph]ie liber primus incipit … ''Nuremberg, 1483. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=89802 INC B694].
* Euclid. ''Preclarissimus liber elementorum Euclidis perspicacissimi, in artem geometrie incipit qua[m]foelicissime.'' Venice: Printed by Erhardus Ratdolt Augustensis, 1482. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=90023 INC E86].
* Aristotle. ''Aristotelis De natura animalium libri nouem''. Venice, 1492. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=89557 INC A871].
* Boethius. ''Auitij Maulij Torquati Seuerini Boetij ordinarij patricij viri exconsulis De consolatione ph[ilosoph]ie liber primus incipit …'' Nuremberg, 1483. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=89802 INC B694].
* Thomas, à Kempis. ''Opera et libri vite Fratris Thome de Kempis ordinis Canonicorum regularium quoru[m] titulos vide in prmo folio.'' Nuremberg, 1498. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=89163 INC T320]. [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/8ephg0 LUNA Digital Image].
* Aristotle. ''Aristotelis De natura animalium libri nouem''. Venice, 1492. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=89557 INC A871].
* Juan Luis Vives. ''Ioannis Lodouici Viuis Von gebirliche[m] Thün vnd Lassen aines Ehemanns.'' Augsburg, 1544. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=76212 PA8588 .D4 1544 Cage].
* Thomas, à Kempis. ''Opera et libri vite Fratris Thome de Kempis ordinis Canonicorum regularium quoru[m] titulos vide in prmo folio.'' Nuremberg, 1498. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=89163 INC T320] and [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/8ephg0 LUNA Digital Image].
* Juan Luis Vives. ''Ioannis Lodouici Viuis Von Vnderweÿsung ayner christlichen Frauwen.'' Augsburg, 1544. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=76211 Bd.w. PA8588 .D4 1544 Cage].
* Juan Luis Vives. ''Ioannis Lodouici Viuis Von gebirliche[m] Thün vnd Lassen aines Ehemanns.'' Augsburg, 1544. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=76212 PA8588 .D4 1544 Cage].
* ''Impressio librorum''. Engraving. [Antwerp], [ca. 1591]. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=335696 ART Vol. f81 no.4]. [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/j545z6 LUNA Digital Image].
* Juan Luis Vives. ''Ioannis Lodouici Viuis Von Vnderweÿsung ayner christlichen Frauwen.'' Augsburg, 1544. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=76211 Bd.w. PA8588 .D4 1544 Cage].
* Jan Collaert. ''Conspicilla''. Engraving. [Antwerp], [between 1636 and 1677]. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=335686 ART Vol. f81 no.15]. [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/b6q5fd LUNA Digital Image].
* ''Impressio librorum''. Engraving. [Antwerp], [ca. 1591]. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=335696 ART Vol. f81 no.4] and [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/j545z6 LUNA Digital Image].
* ''Songes and sonets written by the right honorable Lorde Henry Haward late Earle of Surrey, and others.'' [London]: Apud Richardum Tottell, 1574. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=161375 STC 13866 Copy 1].
* Jan Collaert. ''Conspicilla''. Engraving. [Antwerp], [between 1636 and 1677]. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=335686 ART Vol. f81 no.15] and [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/b6q5fd LUNA Digital Image].
* Giovanni Boccaccio. ''The modell of vvit, mirth, eloquence, and conversation''. London, 1634. [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/w83m76 STC 3174 copy 2].
* ''Songes and sonets written by the right honorable Lorde Henry Haward late Earle of Surrey, and others.'' [London]: Apud Richardum Tottell, 1574. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=161375 STC 13866 Copy 1].
* William Prynne. ''Hidden workes of darkenes brought to publike light, or, A necessary introduction to the history of the Archbishop of Canterburie’s trial. ''London: Printed by Thomas Brudenell, 1645. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=156970 P3973 Bd.w. P3904].
* Giovanni Boccaccio. ''The modell of vvit, mirth, eloquence, and conversation''. London, 1634. Call number [http://luna.folger.edu/luna/servlet/s/w83m76 STC 3174 copy 2].
* Venterus Mandey. ''Mechanick-powers: or, The mistery of nature and art unvail’d.'' London, 1696. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=154995 M418].
* William Prynne. ''Hidden workes of darkenes brought to publike light, or, A necessary introduction to the history of the Archbishop of Canterburie’s trial. ''London: Printed by Thomas Brudenell, 1645. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=156970 P3973 Bd.w. P3904].
* ''The following collections or pious little treatises together with the Rule of S. Clare and declarations upon it, are printed for the use of the English Poor Clares in Ayre an index whereof begin’s in the sequent page''. Printed at Doüay, 1684. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=154845 F1401.5].
* Venterus Mandey. ''Mechanick-powers: or, The mistery of nature and art unvail’d.'' London, 1696. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=154995 M418].
* John White. ''A rich cabinet, with variety of inventions: unlock’d and open’d, for the recreation of ingenious spirits at their vacant hours.'' London, 1668. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=153937 W1791].
* ''The following collections or pious little treatises together with the Rule of S. Clare and declarations upon it, are printed for the use of the English Poor Clares in Ayre an index whereof begin’s in the sequent page''. Printed at Doüay, 1684. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=154845 F1401.5].
* ''The compleat clerk, containing the best forms of all sorts of presidents, for conveyances and assurances; and other instruments now in use and practice.'' London: Printed by G. Sawbridge, T. Roycroft, and W. Rawlins, 1677. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=149454 H43].
* John White. ''A rich cabinet, with variety of inventions: unlock’d and open’d, for the recreation of ingenious spirits at their vacant hours.'' London, 1668. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=153937 W1791].
* Gijsbert Voet. ''Catalogus variorum librorum instuctissimæ [sic] bibliothecæ præstantissimi doctissimique.'' [London], 1678]. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=147969 V645].
* ''The compleat clerk, containing the best forms of all sorts of presidents, for conveyances and assurances; and other instruments now in use and practice.'' London: Printed by G. Sawbridge, T. Roycroft, and W. Rawlins, 1677. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=149454 H43].
* Eleanor Douglas. ''Samsons fall''. London: [s.n.], Printed in the year 1642 [i.e. between 1649 and 1652?]. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=147693 D2010].
* Gijsbert Voet. ''Catalogus variorum librorum instuctissimæ [sic] bibliothecæ præstantissimi doctissimique.'' [London], 1678]. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=147969 V645].
* Edmund Coote. ''The English school-master.'' [London]: Printed by A. Maxwell, 1670. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=147628 C6073].
* Eleanor Douglas. ''Samsons fall''. London: [s.n.], Printed in the year 1642 [i.e. between 1649 and 1652?]. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=147693 D2010].
* Francis Cruys. ''Ars nova natandi, or, New swimming girdles, that will safely support a man from drowning, in any kind of water; with many other conveniences.'' Bristol, 1698. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=145816 C7447.5].
* Edmund Coote. ''The English school-master.'' [London]: Printed by A. Maxwell, 1670. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=147628 C6073].
* Gilbert Burnet. ''Some letters· Containing, an account of what seemed most remarkable in Switzerland, Italy, &c.'' Rotterdam: Printed by Abraham Acher, 1686. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=145400 B5915].
* Francis Cruys. ''Ars nova natandi, or, New swimming girdles, that will safely support a man from drowning, in any kind of water; with many other conveniences.'' Bristol, 1698. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=145816 C7447.5].
* Francis Quarles. ''Emblemes''. London, 1663. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=144426 Q80].
* Gilbert Burnet. ''Some letters· Containing, an account of what seemed most remarkable in Switzerland, Italy, &c.'' Rotterdam: Printed by Abraham Acher, 1686. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=145400 B5915].
* William Sewel. ''A new dictionary English and Dutch, wherein the words are rightly interpreted, and their various significations exactly noted.'' Amsterdam, 1691. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=144025 S2825].
* Francis Quarles. ''Emblemes''. London, 1663. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=144426 Q80].
* William Cartwright. ''Comedies, tragi-comedies, with other poems.'' London, 1651. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=142220 C709 c.2 v.1].
* William Sewel. ''A new dictionary English and Dutch, wherein the words are rightly interpreted, and their various significations exactly noted.'' Amsterdam, 1691. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=144025 S2825].
* John Lilburne. ''The triall, of Lieut. Collonell John Lilburne''. [London]: Printed by Hen. Hils, [1649]. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=140560 W338].
* William Cartwright. ''Comedies, tragi-comedies, with other poems.'' London, 1651. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=142220 C709 c.2 v.1].
* Desiderius Erasmus. ''De duplici copia verborum & rerum commentarij duo.'' Londini [i.e. Antwerp?], 1556. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=169895 STC 10471.8].
* John Lilburne. ''The triall, of Lieut. Collonell John Lilburne''. [London]: Printed by Hen. Hils, [1649]. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=140560 W338].
* Martin Billingsley. ''The pen’s excellencie or The secretaries delighte wherein as well the abuses wh. are offered unto ye worthines of ye pen by unworthie pen men, are trulie discovered''. [London], [1618?]. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=169848 STC 3062].
* Desiderius Erasmus. ''De duplici copia verborum & rerum commentarij duo.'' Londini [i.e. Antwerp?], 1556. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=169895 STC 10471.8].
* Catholic Church. Hereafter foloweth the prymer in Englysshe and in latin sette out alonge: after the vse of Saru[m]. [Rothomagi], [1555]. [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=169843 STC 16071].
* Martin Billingsley. ''The pen’s excellencie or The secretaries delighte wherein as well the abuses wh. are offered unto ye worthines of ye pen by unworthie pen men, are trulie discovered''. [London], [1618?]. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=169848 STC 3062].
* Catholic Church. Hereafter foloweth the prymer in Englysshe and in latin sette out alonge: after the vse of Saru[m]. [Rothomagi], [1555]. Call number [http://shakespeare.folger.edu/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=169843 STC 16071].

Revision as of 19:10, 29 October 2014

The Reader Revealed was part of the Exhibitions at the Folger. The exhibition opened September 4, 2001 and closed January 19, 2002. The exhibition catalog can be purchased from the Folger Shop.

All the world’s a text, and all the men and women merely readers.

Reading is fundamental to human interaction and communication. Through innovations in print technology achieved by Johann Gutenberg in the fifteenth century, printed books became more affordable and more accessible. Thus, reading—once the preserve of a small educated elite—was opened up to a much more diverse audience.

The earliest printed books incorporated the manuscript tradition of using red ink to direct the reader’s attention and interpretation, as well as type that imitated handwriting, known as black letter. In this 16th century primer, printed in black letter, red ink was used to emphasize the major holy days such as the “Nativity of Our Lord” on December 25, revealing the origin of ‘red-letter days.’

English children were taught to read by their mothers or petty schoolmasters from hornbooks, or other basic reading manuals printed in black letter. They advanced from the fundamental ABCs, vowels, and the Lord’s Prayer of the hornbook to the primer. Female education often stopped at this level. Here a boy receives instruction in writing his ABCs. The girl, standing to the side reading, is literally and figuratively excluded from the knowledge of writing.

Readers at lower levels of literacy might have been able to read printed black letter but not handwritten italic scripts, and many, especially women, had only limited ability to write in italic script. An inability to write even one’s own name, however, did not necessarily indicate an inability to read since reading and writing were taught as separate processes, and reading—abcedarian literacy—was taught first.

Reading served many purposes in early modern Europe. Renaissance readers were as varied as kings and tradesmen, saints and sinners, celebrities and nonentities. It is this 'great variety of readers' that is addressed by John Heminge and Henry Condell in the preliminary leaves of their 1623 First Folio of Shakespeare's works.

Students and scholars read to acquire specialized knowledge. But even sixteenth-century schoolboys could occasionally be distracted from their study of Latin grammar.

Professionals read to enhance their skills. The accused read in pursuit of justice, the godly in search of salvation. Consumers read about new products. For women, studying worthy books might attract or repel suitors. Reading was often a pragmatic act, 'studied for action' to navigate the difficult course of human experience. The practice of reading was expanded and enhanced through numerous technological innovations, among them mechanized book stands, or book wheels, spectacles, magnifying lenses, and new and improved light sources. “How to make a glorious light with a Candle, like the Sun-shine” is illustrated in John White’s collection of helpful hints.

Throughout the seventeenth century, the community of readers grew and became more inclusive. One factor was the call for increased and improved education for women. Another factor was the agricultural revolution which afforded children and laborers more educational opportunities. The resulting improvement in literacy rates among these previously marginal groups increased the demand for, and contributed to the proliferation of, lower priced reading materials, making more books accessible to more readers.

Early modern readers identified with their books in a variety of ways. Some viewed them as almost mystical, as objects to be revered. Owners, like Francis Newby, decorated their books with custom bindings, gauffered gilt edges, and other ornamentation. Other readers, like Johann Gerard, simply made marks in their books which illustrate and record a wide range of human experience and emotion.

These interactions evidence deeper levels of personal interaction between book and reader—from humorous to grave, from inane to practical, from affluent to humble. The range of sentiments reflected by readers transformed even ordinary books into valued keepsakes to be passed on to future generations.

The early modern reader is revealed to us today primarily through evidence in contemporary books and manuscripts. Accumulated and preserved over the centuries by great libraries and individual collectors like Henry Clay Folger and Emily Jordan Folger, these books document the humble origins of a significant number of former owners and readers. Exquisite decoration and extensive annotation are evidence that these books were well-loved and well-used. Personal interactions between reader and book provide important insights into the lives, thoughts, and concerns of a time far removed from our own. The story revealed is an amazing and on-going saga of use, reverence, survival, and endurance.

List of selected exhibition items

  • Sarah Sale. Notebook of Sarah Sale. Manuscript, 1679-1690. Call number A2254.5 (ms. content).
  • Christoff Weigel. Abbildung der gemein-nützlichen Haupt-Stände. Regenspurg, 1698. Call number 203- 725q.
  • John Taylor. Verbum sempiternum. London: Printed by J. B[eale]., 1631. Call number STC 23811.2.
  • Arthur Dent. A sermon of repentaunce. London: for Iohn Harison, 1583. Call number STC 6652.
  • Aabc […]. [London?: s.n., 1625]. Call number STC 13813.6.
  • The New Testament of ovr Lord Iesvs Christ. London: Robert Barker, 1609. Call number STC 2907.
  • Thomas Sternhold. The whole booke of Psalmes. London : Printed by I[ohn] L[egat], 1639. Call number STC 2689 copy 1.
  • Samuel Daniel. The collection of the history of England. London: Printed [by Nicholas Okes] for Simon Waterson, 1626. Call number STC 6251 copy 4 and LUNA Digital Image.
  • Church of England. Catechismus paruus pueris primùm Latinè qui ediscatur, proponendus in scholis. London, 1573. Call number STC 18711.
  • Francis Bacon. Francisci Baconi de Verulamio, summi Angliæ Cancelarii, De sapientia veterum, liber. London, 1634. Call number STC 1129 and LUNA Digital Image.
  • Edward Dering. A collection of speeches made by Sir Edward Dering Knight and Baronet, in matter of religion. London: Printed by E[dward]. G[riffin]. for F. Eglesfield, and Jo. Stafford, 1642. Call number D1104 and LUNA Digital Image.
  • Isaac Oliver. Philip Herbert, Fourth Earl of Pembroke. [Exhibited as William Herbert]. Drawing on vellum with watercolor, 1611. Call number FPm10 (realia) and LUNA Digital Image.
  • George James De Wilde. The seven ages of man. Painting on canvas, 1823. Call number FPa19 and LUNA Digital Image.
  • Hartmann Schopper. Panoplia omnium illiberalium mechanicarum aut sedentariarum artium genera continens. Frankfurt, 1568. Call number GT5770 .S4 Cage.
  • William Shakespeare. Mr. VVilliam Shakespeares comedies, histories, & tragedies. London: Printed by Isaac Iaggard, and Ed. Blount, 1623. Call number STC 22273 Fo.1 no.09 and LUNA Digital Image.
  • William Shakespeare. Mr. VVilliam Shakespeares comedies, histories, & tragedies. London: Printed by Isaac Iaggard, and Ed. Blount, 1623. Call number STC 22273 Fo.1 no.46.
  • Francis Carswell. England’s restoration parallel’d in Judah’s. London, 1689. Call number C650 Copy 2.
  • Clement Walker. Relations and observations, historical and politick, upon the Parliament begun anno Dom. 1640. Divided into II. books. London, 1648. Call number W334.
  • Joseph Moxon. Mechanick exercises: or, the doctrine of handy-works. London, 1683. Call number M3014.
  • Simeon Ash. A support for the sinking heart in times of distresse. London, 1642. Call number 146- 894q.
  • Poetical miscellany. Manuscript, ca. 1630. Call number V.a.345 and LUNA Digital Image.
  • Barry Moser. [Test impression for] the first book of Moses called Genesis [from the Pennyroyal-Caxton edition of the Holy Bible]. West Hatfield, Mass.: Pennyroyal Caxton Press, 1999. Call number 252206 ART (size L).
  • Marcus Tullius Cicero. Ciceronis De oratore libri III ; Orator ; De claris oratoribus / cum annotationibus Dionysii Lambini ... singulis tomis distinctis. Venice, 1569. Call number Bd.w. PA6304 .R7 1569 Cage.
  • Euclid. Preclarissimus liber elementorum Euclidis perspicacissimi, in artem geometrie incipit qua[m]foelicissime. Venice: Printed by Erhardus Ratdolt Augustensis, 1482. Call number INC E86.
  • Boethius. Auitij Maulij Torquati Seuerini Boetij ordinarij patricij viri exconsulis De consolatione ph[ilosoph]ie liber primus incipit … Nuremberg, 1483. Call number INC B694.
  • Aristotle. Aristotelis De natura animalium libri nouem. Venice, 1492. Call number INC A871.
  • Thomas, à Kempis. Opera et libri vite Fratris Thome de Kempis ordinis Canonicorum regularium quoru[m] titulos vide in prmo folio. Nuremberg, 1498. Call number INC T320 and LUNA Digital Image.
  • Juan Luis Vives. Ioannis Lodouici Viuis Von gebirliche[m] Thün vnd Lassen aines Ehemanns. Augsburg, 1544. Call number PA8588 .D4 1544 Cage.
  • Juan Luis Vives. Ioannis Lodouici Viuis Von Vnderweÿsung ayner christlichen Frauwen. Augsburg, 1544. Call number Bd.w. PA8588 .D4 1544 Cage.
  • Impressio librorum. Engraving. [Antwerp], [ca. 1591]. Call number ART Vol. f81 no.4 and LUNA Digital Image.
  • Jan Collaert. Conspicilla. Engraving. [Antwerp], [between 1636 and 1677]. Call number ART Vol. f81 no.15 and LUNA Digital Image.
  • Songes and sonets written by the right honorable Lorde Henry Haward late Earle of Surrey, and others. [London]: Apud Richardum Tottell, 1574. Call number STC 13866 Copy 1.
  • Giovanni Boccaccio. The modell of vvit, mirth, eloquence, and conversation. London, 1634. Call number STC 3174 copy 2.
  • William Prynne. Hidden workes of darkenes brought to publike light, or, A necessary introduction to the history of the Archbishop of Canterburie’s trial. London: Printed by Thomas Brudenell, 1645. Call number P3973 Bd.w. P3904.
  • Venterus Mandey. Mechanick-powers: or, The mistery of nature and art unvail’d. London, 1696. Call number M418.
  • The following collections or pious little treatises together with the Rule of S. Clare and declarations upon it, are printed for the use of the English Poor Clares in Ayre an index whereof begin’s in the sequent page. Printed at Doüay, 1684. Call number F1401.5.
  • John White. A rich cabinet, with variety of inventions: unlock’d and open’d, for the recreation of ingenious spirits at their vacant hours. London, 1668. Call number W1791.
  • The compleat clerk, containing the best forms of all sorts of presidents, for conveyances and assurances; and other instruments now in use and practice. London: Printed by G. Sawbridge, T. Roycroft, and W. Rawlins, 1677. Call number H43.
  • Gijsbert Voet. Catalogus variorum librorum instuctissimæ [sic] bibliothecæ præstantissimi doctissimique. [London], 1678]. Call number V645.
  • Eleanor Douglas. Samsons fall. London: [s.n.], Printed in the year 1642 [i.e. between 1649 and 1652?]. Call number D2010.
  • Edmund Coote. The English school-master. [London]: Printed by A. Maxwell, 1670. Call number C6073.
  • Francis Cruys. Ars nova natandi, or, New swimming girdles, that will safely support a man from drowning, in any kind of water; with many other conveniences. Bristol, 1698. Call number C7447.5.
  • Gilbert Burnet. Some letters· Containing, an account of what seemed most remarkable in Switzerland, Italy, &c. Rotterdam: Printed by Abraham Acher, 1686. Call number B5915.
  • Francis Quarles. Emblemes. London, 1663. Call number Q80.
  • William Sewel. A new dictionary English and Dutch, wherein the words are rightly interpreted, and their various significations exactly noted. Amsterdam, 1691. Call number S2825.
  • William Cartwright. Comedies, tragi-comedies, with other poems. London, 1651. Call number C709 c.2 v.1.
  • John Lilburne. The triall, of Lieut. Collonell John Lilburne. [London]: Printed by Hen. Hils, [1649]. Call number W338.
  • Desiderius Erasmus. De duplici copia verborum & rerum commentarij duo. Londini [i.e. Antwerp?], 1556. Call number STC 10471.8.
  • Martin Billingsley. The pen’s excellencie or The secretaries delighte wherein as well the abuses wh. are offered unto ye worthines of ye pen by unworthie pen men, are trulie discovered. [London], [1618?]. Call number STC 3062.
  • Catholic Church. Hereafter foloweth the prymer in Englysshe and in latin sette out alonge: after the vse of Saru[m]. [Rothomagi], [1555]. Call number STC 16071.